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2	"How does information get into..." How does information get into memory? Through your stomach? Ghrelin (associated with growth hormone release and with appetite) can enter the hippocampus Ghrelin is released when the stomach is empty It binds with hippocampal neurons to foster alterations in connections during learning
3	"What are some potential real-world..." What are some potential real-world implications of these findings? Plausible speculation: Children may not benefit from overeating at breakfast Ghrelin-like drugs may protect against dementia, like Alzheimer’s disease
4	Human Memory: Basic Questions How is information maintained in memory? How is information pulled back out of memory? How is forgetting related to learning?
5	Figure 7.2 Three key processes in memory. Memory depends on three sequential processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Some theorists have drawn an analogy between these processes and elements of information processing by computers as depicted here. The analogies for encoding and retrieval work pretty well, but the storage analogy is somewhat misleading. When information is stored on a hard drive, it remains unchanged indefinitely and you can retrieve an exact copy. As you will learn in this chapter, memory storage is a much more dynamic process. Our memories change over time and are rough reconstructions rather than exact copies of past events.
6	Encoding: Getting Information Into Memory The role of attention Focusing awareness Selective attention Divided attention
7	Levels of Processing Craik and Lockhart: incoming information is processed at different levels Levels of processing: Structural = shallow Phonemic = intermediate Semantic = deep Deeper processing = longer lasting memory codes
8	Figure 7.3 Levels-of-processing theory. According to Craik and Lockhart (1972), structural, phonemic, and semantic encoding—which can be elicited by questions such as those shown on the right—involve progressively deeper levels of processing, which should result in more durable memories.
9	Enriching Encoding Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding Thinking of examples Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered Easier for concrete objects: Dual-coding theory
10	Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory Analogy: information storage in computers ~ information storage in human memory Information-processing theories Subdivide memory into 3 different stores Sensory, Short-term, Long-term
11	Figure 7.6 The Atkinson and Shiffrin model of memory storage. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971) proposed that memory is made up of three information stores. Sensory memory can hold a large amount of information just long enough (a fraction of a second) for a small portion of it to be selected for longer storage. Short-term memory has a limited capacity, and unless aided by rehearsal, its storage duration is brief. Long-term memory can store an apparently unlimited amount of information for indeterminate periods.
12	Sensory Memory Brief preservation of information in original sensory form Afterimage Auditory/Visual – approximately ¼ second
13	Short Term Memory (STM) Limited duration – about 20 seconds without rehearsal Rehearsal – the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information Limited capacity – magical number 7 plus or minus 2 Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for storage as a single unit
14	Short-Term Memory as “Working Memory” STM not limited to phonemic encoding Loss of information not only due to decay and displacement Baddeley (2001) – 4 components of working memory Phonological rehearsal loop Visuospatial sketchpad Executive control system Episodic buffer
15	Figure 7.7 Short-term memory as working memory. This diagram depicts the revised model of the short-term store proposed by Alan Baddeley. According to Baddeley (2001), working memory includes four components: a phonological rehearsal loop, a visuospatial sketchpad, an executive control system, and an episodic buffer.
16	Long-Term Memory Unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time Permanent storage? Flashbulb memories
17	Is exposure enough for remembering? Draw the front of the following U.S. coins: Penny Nickel Dime Quarter
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19	"You are going to go..." You are going to go through a test of your memory. Read each word that you will see. When I give you the instruction, recall as many of the words as you can.
20	How Is Knowledge Represented and Organized in Memory? Schemas Semantic Networks Connectionist Networks and PDP Models
21	Figure 7.8 A semantic network. Much of the organization of long-term memory depends on networks of associations among concepts. In this highly simplified depiction of a fragment of a semantic network, the shorter the line linking any two concepts, the stronger the association between them. The coloration of the concept boxes represents activation of the concepts. This is how the network might look just after a person hears the words fire engine. Source: Adapted from Collins, A. M., & Loftus, E. F. (1975). A spreading activation theory of semantic processing. Psychological Review, 82, 407–428. Copyright © 1975 by the American Psychological Association. Adapted by permission of the authors.
22	Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – a failure in retrieval Retrieval cues Recalling an event Context cues Reconstructing memories Misinformation effect Source monitoring
23	Figure 7.9 The misinformation effect. In an experiment by Loftus and Palmer (1974), participants who were asked leading questions in which cars were described as hitting or smashing each other were prone to recall the same accident differently one week later, demonstrating the reconstructive nature of memory.
24	A Brief Assignment You have an assignment between now and the next time we meet The assignment requires no extra reading or writing Your Assignment: Forget this: 911 You will be tested on your forgetting when we meet after break.
25	"Write down the names of..." Write down the names of all the U.S. presidents you can recall.
26	The U.S. Presidents Washington Adams Jefferson Madison Monroe Adams Jackson Van Buren Harrison Tyler Polk Taylor Fillmore Pierce Buchanan Lincoln Johnson Grant Hayes Garfield Arthur Cleveland
27	"Serial Position Effect" Serial Position Effect Primacy and Recency Effects Von Restorff Effect Proactive Interference Retroactive Interference
28	Forgetting: When Memory Lapses Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve Nonsense syllables Retention – the proportion of material retained Measures of Forgetting Recall Recognition
29	Figure 7.10 Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve for nonsense syllables. From his experiments on himself, Ebbinghaus concluded that forgetting is extremely rapid immediately after the original learning and then levels off. Although this generalization remains true, subsequent research has shown that forgetting curves for nonsense syllables are unusually steep. (Data from Ebbinghaus, 1885)
30	Why We Forget Ineffective Encoding Decay theory Interference theory Proactive Retroactive Encoding specificity principle
31	Figure 7.11 Effects of interference. According to interference theory, more interference from competing information should produce more forgetting. McGeoch and McDonald (1931) controlled the amount of interference with a learning task by varying the similarity of an intervening task. The results were consistent with interference theory. The amount of interference is greatest at the left of the graph, as is the amount of forgetting. As interference decreases (moving to the right on the graph), retention improves. (Data from McGeoch & McDonald, 1931)
32	Figure 7.12 Retroactive and proactive interference. Retroactive interference occurs when learning produces a “backward” effect, reducing recall of previously learned material. Proactive interference occurs when learning produces a “forward” effect, reducing recall of subsequently learned material. For example, if you were to prepare for an economics test and then study psychology, the interference from the psychology study would be retroactive interference. However, if you studied psychology first and then economics, the interference from the psychology study would be proactive interference
33	The Repressed Memories Controversy Repression Authenticity of repressed memories? Memory illusions Controversy
34	Figure 7.15 Retrograde versus anterograde amnesia. In retrograde amnesia, memory for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia is lost. In anterograde amnesia, memory for events that occur subsequent to the onset of amnesia suffers.
35	In Search of the Memory Trace: The Physiology of Memory Anatomy of Memory Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia The hippocampus and consolidation Neural Circuitry and Biochemistry Localized neural circuits Reusable pathways in the brain Biochemistry Alteration in synaptic transmission Hormones modulating neurotransmitter systems Protein synthesis
36	Figure 7.16 The anatomy of memory. All the brain structures identified here have been implicated in efforts to discover the anatomical structures involved in memory. Although its exact contribution to memory remains the subject of debate, the hippocampus is thought to play an especially central role in memory. Photo: Wadsworth collection.
37	Are There Multiple Memory Systems? Implicit vs. Explicit Declarative vs. Procedural Semantic vs. Episodic