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2	Sensation and Perception Sensation stimulation of sense organs Perception selection, organization, and interpretation of sensory input
3	The Visual System: The Stimulus Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation that travels as a wave Amplitude: perception of brightness Wavelength: perception of color Purity: mix of wavelengths perception of saturation, or richness of colors.
4	Figure 4.1 Light, the physical stimulus for vision. (a) Light waves vary in amplitude and wavelength. (b) Within the spectrum of visible light, amplitude (corresponding to physical intensity) affects mainly the experience of brightness. Wavelength affects mainly the experience of color, and purity is the key determinant of saturation. (c) If white light (such as sunlight) passes through a prism, the prism separates the light into its component wavelengths, creating a rainbow of colors. However, visible light is only the narrow band of wavelengths to which human eyes happen to be sensitive.
5	The Eye: A Living Optical Instrument The eye: housing and channeling Components: Cornea: where light enters the eye Lens: focuses the light rays on the retina Iris: colored ring of muscle surrounding the pupil Pupil: regulates amount of light
6	Figure 4.2 The human eye. Light passes through the cornea, pupil, and lens and falls on the light-sensitive surface of the retina, where images of objects are reflected upside down. The lens adjusts its curvature to focus the images falling on the retina. The pupil regulates the amount of light passing into the rear chamber of the eye.
7	Figure 4.3 Nearsightedness and farsightedness. The pictures on the right simulate how a scene might look to nearsighted and farsighted people. Nearsightedness occurs because light from distant objects focuses in front of the retina. Farsightedness is due to the opposite situation—light from close objects focuses behind the retina. Photos: Craig McClain
8	The Retina: The Brain’s Envoy in the Eye Retina: neural tissue lining the inside back surface of the eye which absorbs light, processes images, and sends information to the brain Optic disk: where the optic nerve leaves the eye/ blind spot Receptor cells: Rods: black and white/low light vision Cones: color and daylight vision Adaptation: becoming more or less sensitive to light as needed Information processing in they eye: Receptive fields
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10	Figure 4.7 Visual pathways through the brain. (a) Input from the right half of the visual field strikes the left side of each retina and is transmitted to the left hemisphere (shown in red). Input from the left half of the visual field strikes the right side of each retina and is transmitted to the right hemisphere (shown in green). The nerve fibers from each eye meet at the optic chiasm, where fibers from the inside half of each retina cross over to the opposite side of the brain. After reaching the optic chiasm, the major visual pathway projects through the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus and onto the primary visual cortex (shown with solid lines). A second pathway detours through the superior colliculus and then projects through the thalamus and onto the primary visual cortex (shown with dotted lines). (b) This inset shows a vertical view of how the optic pathways project through the thalamus and onto the visual cortex in the back of the brain [the two pathways mapped out in diagram (a) are virtually indistinguishable from this angle].
11	Vision and the Brain: Information Processing Early 1960’s: Hubel and Wiesel Microelectrode recording of axons in primary visual cortex of animals Discovered feature detectors: neurons that respond selectively to very specific features of more complex stimuli Simple, complex, hypercomplex cells Groundbreaking research: Nobel Prize in 1981 Later research: cells specific to faces in the temporal lobes of monkeys and humans
12	Figure 4.8 Hubel and Wiesel’s procedure for studying the activity of neurons in the visual cortex. As the cat is shown various stimuli, a microelectrode records the firing of a neuron in the cat’s visual cortex. The figure shows the electrical responses of a visual cell apparently “programmed” to respond to lines oriented vertically.
13	Viewing the World in Color Wavelength determines color Longer = red / shorter = violet Amplitude determines brightness Purity determines saturation
14	Figure 4.12 The color circle and complementary colors. Colors opposite each other on this color circle are complements, or “opposites.” Additively, mixing complementary colors produces gray. Opponent process principles help explain this effect as well as the other peculiarities of complementary colors noted in the text.
15	Theories of Color Vision Trichromatic theory – Young and Helmholtz Receptors for red, green, blue – color mixing Opponent Process theory – Hering 3 pairs of antagonistic colors red/green, blue/yellow, black/white Current perspective: both theories necessary
16	Figure 4.14 Reconciling theories of color vision. Contemporary explanations of color vision include aspects of both the trichromatic and opponent process theories. As predicted by trichromatic theory, there are three types of receptors for color—cones sensitive to short, medium, and long wavelengths. However, these cones are organized into receptive fields that excite or inhibit the firing of higher-level visual cells in the retina, thalamus, and cortex. As predicted by opponent process theory, some of these cells respond in antagonistic ways to blue versus yellow, red versus green, and black versus white.
17	Perceiving Forms, Patterns, and Objects Reversible figures Perceptual sets Gestalt psychologists: the whole is more than the sum of its parts Reversible figures and perceptual sets demonstrate that the same visual stimulus can result in very different perceptions
18	Each of these figures can be seen as two different things. Can you identify them?
19	A pretty boring video clip Count how many times the people in the black clothes pass the ball. Try to be as accurate as you can. The Video
20	Figure 4.17 Feature analysis in form perception. One vigorously debated theory of form perception is that the brain has cells that respond to specific aspects or features of stimuli, such as lines and angles. Neurons functioning as higher-level analyzers then respond to input from these “feature detectors.” The more input each analyzer receives, the more active it becomes. Finally, other neurons weigh signals from these analyzers and make a “decision” about the stimulus. In this way perception of a form is arrived at by assembling elements from the bottom up.
21	Figure 4.18 Bottom-up versus top-down processing. As explained in these diagrams, bottom-up processing progresses from individual elements to whole elements, whereas top-down processing progresses from the whole to the individual elements.
22	Figure 4.19 The principle of figure and ground. Whether you see two faces or a vase depends on which part of this drawing you see as figure and which as background. Although this reversible drawing allows you to switch back and forth between two ways of organizing your perception, you can’t perceive the drawing both ways at once.
23	More on Figure-Ground
24	Perceiving Depth or Distance Binocular cues – clues from both eyes together retinal disparity Monocular cues – clues from a single eye accommodation pictorial depth cues Does size matter?
25	Principles of Perception Gestalt principles of form perception: figure-ground, proximity, closure, similarity, simplicity, and continuity Perceptual hypotheses An inference about what form could be responsible for a pattern of sensory stimulation Often guided by context
26	Figure 4.20 Gestalt principles of perceptual organization. Gestalt principles help explain some of the factors that influence form perception. (a) Proximity: These dots might well be organized in vertical columns rather than horizontal rows, but because of proximity (the dots are closer together horizontally), they tend to be perceived in rows. (b) Closure: Even though the figures are incomplete, you fill in the blanks and see a circle and a dog. (c) Similarity: Because of similarity of color, you see dots organized into the number 2 instead of a random array. If you did not group similar elements, you wouldn’t see the number 2 here. (d) Simplicity: You could view this as a complicated 11-sided figure, but given the preference for simplicity, you are more likely to see it as an overlapping rectangle and triangle. (e) Continuity: You tend to group these dots in a way that produces a smooth path rather than an abrupt shift in direction.
27	Figure 4.21 Perceptual hypotheses. The images projected on the retina are often distorted, shifting representations of stimuli in the real world, requiring ongoing perceptual hypotheses about what form could be responsible for a particular pattern of sensory stimulation. For example, if you look directly down at a small, square piece of paper on a desk (a), the stimulus (the paper) and the image projected on your retina will both be square. But as you move the paper away on the desktop, as shown in (b) and (c), the square stimulus projects an increasingly trapezoidal image on your retina.
28	Figure 4.22 A famous reversible figure. What do you see? Consult the text to learn what the two possible interpretations of this figure are.
29	Figure 4.24 Context effects. The context in which a stimulus is seen can affect your perceptual hypotheses. The middle character in the word on the left is assumed to be an “H,” whereas in the word on the right the same character is assumed to be an “A.” In addition to showing the potential influence of context, this example shows the power of expectations and top-down processing.
30	Stability in the Perceptual World: Perceptual Constancies Perceptual constancies – stable perceptions amid changing stimuli Size Shape Brightness Hue Location in space
31	Optical Illusions: The Power of Misleading Cues Optical Illusions – discrepancy between visual appearance and physical reality Famous optical illusions: Muller-Lyer Illusion, Ponzo Illusion, Poggendorf Illusion, Upside-Down T Illusion, Zollner Illusion, the Ames Room, and Impossible Figures Cultural differences: Perceptual hypotheses at work
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33	Figure 4.27 The Müller-Lyer illusion. Go ahead, measure them: the two vertical lines are of equal length.
34	Figure 4.29 Four geometric illusions. Ponzo: The horizontal lines are the same length. Poggendorff: The two diagonal segments lie on the same straight line. Upside-down T: The vertical and horizontal lines are the same length. Zollner: The long diagonals are all parallel (try covering up some of the short diagonal lines if you don’t believe it).
35	Figure 4.31 Three classic impossible figures. The figures are impossible, yet they clearly exist—on the page. What makes them impossible is that they appear to be three-dimensional representations yet are drawn in a way that frustrates mental attempts to “assemble” their features into possible objects. It’s difficult to see the drawings simply as lines lying in a plane—even though this perceptual hypothesis is the only one that resolves the contradiction.
36	Our Sense of Hearing: The Auditory System Stimulus = sound waves (vibrations of molecules traveling in air) Amplitude (loudness) Wavelength (pitch) Purity (timbre)
37	Figure 4.32 Sound, the physical stimulus for hearing. (a) Like light, sound travels in waves—in this case, waves of air pressure. A smooth curve would represent a pure tone, such as that produced by a tuning fork. Most sounds, however, are complex. For example, the wave shown here is for middle C played on a piano. The sound wave for the same note played on a violin would have the same wavelength (or frequency) as this one, but the “wrinkles” in the wave would be different, corresponding to the differences in timbre between the two sounds. (b) The table shows the main relations between objective aspects of sound and subjective perceptions.
38	The Auditory System
39	Sensory Processing in the Ear External ear (pinna): collects sound Middle ear: the ossicles (hammer, anvil, stirrup) Inner ear: the cochlea a fluid-filled, coiled tunnel contains the hair cells, the auditory receptors lined up on the basilar membrane
40	The Auditory Pathway Sound waves vibrate bones of the middle ear Stirrup hits against the oval window of cochlea Sets the fluid inside in motion Hair cells are stimulated with the movement of the basilar membrane Physical stimulation converted into neural impulses Sent through the thalamus to the auditory cortex (temporal lobes)
41	Figure 4.35 The basilar membrane. This graphic shows how the cochlea might look if it was unwound and cut open to reveal the basilar membrane, which is covered with thousands of hair cells (the auditory receptors). Pressure waves in the fluid filling the cochlea cause oscillations to travel in waves down the basilar membrane, stimulating the hair cells to fire. Although the entire membrane vibrates, as predicted by frequency theory, the point along the membrane where the wave peaks depends on the frequency of the sound stimulus, as suggested by place theory.
42	Auditory Perception: Theories of Hearing Hermann von Helmholtz (1863) Place theory Other researchers (Rutherford, 1886) Frequency theory Georg von Bekesy (1947) Traveling wave theory
43	Taste: The Gustatory System Taste (gustation) Physical stimulus: soluble chemical substances Receptor cells found in taste buds Four primary tastes: sweet, sour, bitter, and salty Taste: learned and social processes
44	Figure 4.36 The tongue and taste. Taste buds are clustered around tiny bumps on the tongue called papillae. There are three types of papillae, which are distributed as shown here. The taste buds found in each type of papillae show slightly different sensitivities to the four basic tastes, as mapped out in the graph at the top. Thus, sensitivity to the primary tastes varies across the tongue, but these variations are small and all four primary tastes can be detected wherever there are taste receptors Source: Adapted from Bartoshuk, L. M. (1993). Genetic and pathological taste variation: What can we learn from animal models and human disease? In D. Chadwick, J. Marsh, & J. Goode (Eds.), The molecular basis of smell and taste transduction (pp. 251–267). New York: Wiley.
45	The Chemical Senses: Smell Smell (Olfaction) Physical stimuli: substances carried in the air dissolved in fluid, the mucus in the nose Olfactory receptors = olfactory cilia Synapse directly with cells in brain Olfactory sense not routed through thalamus
46	Figure 4.37 The olfactory system. Odor molecules travel through the nasal passages and stimulate olfactory cilia. An enlargement of these hairlike olfactory receptors is shown in the inset. The olfactory nerves transmit neural impulses through the olfactory bulb to the brain.
47	Touch: Sensory Systems in the Skin Physical stimuli = mechanical, thermal, and chemical energy coming in contact with the skin Pathway: Sensory receptors -> the spinal cord -> brainstem -> thalamus -> somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe) Sensory receptors specialized to some degree for different functions, such as pressure, heat, cold, etc. Pain receptors: free nerve endings Two pain pathways: fast vs. slow Gate-control theory
48	Figure 4.38 Receptive field for touch. A receptive field for touch is an area on the skin surface that, when stimulated, affects the firing of a cell that responds to pressure on the skin. Shown here is a center-surround receptive field for a cell in the thalamus of a monkey, originally described by Mountcastle and Powell (1959). Receptive fields for touch come in a variety of sizes and functional arrangements.
49	Figure 4.39 Pathways for pain signals. Pain signals are sent inward from receptors to the brain along the two ascending pathways depicted here in red and black. The fast pathway, shown in red, and the slow pathway, shown in black, depend on different types of nerve fibers and are routed through different parts of the thalamus. The gate control mechanism hypothesized by Melzack and Wall (1965) apparently depends on signals in a descending pathway (shown in green) that originates in an area of the midbrain.