Email: Beins@ithaca.edu
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Important note: These summaries have been written by students on the Research Team. We have made every effort to be as accurate as possible in summarizing the study and the conclusions.
Danzer, A. J., Dale, A., & Klions, H. L. (1990). Effect of Exposure to Humorous Stimuli onInduced Depression. Psychological Reports, 66, 1027-1036.
Fuller, & Sheehy-Skeffington, (1974). Effects of Group laughter on Responses to Humorous Material
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Introduction
Many studies have been done in the past in relation to mood induction. Velton (1968) stated that mood changes measured through different behavioral tests were mediated through self-instruction and cognitive changes. Using this information, Riccelli, Antila, Dale, and Klions (1989) compared the effect of mood induction with the effect of odifying facial expressions in the subjects. All subjects completed a depression and elation mood induction. Half of the subjects completed the the elation sequence before the depression sequence, and the other half did the opposite. Subjects' depression scores increased with the depression and decreased with the elation induction. Researchers speculated that a potentially similar technique for modifying depressive cognitions may be humor, because past research shows that humor may serve as a moderator of stress for depressive symptoms.
Method
Participants Participants in this study, 38 women between the ages of 18 and 28. All subjects were undergraduate students at a small liberal arts college and received additional credit in thier introductory psychology class in exchange for their participation.
Procedure Each subejcts was individually tested. All subjects were asked to first fill out the Multiple Affect Adjective Checklist, and electrodes were then placed on the subjects by the experimenter. Heart rate was taken for 30 seconds immediately before the subjects were presented with a series of depressive slides. Twenty depressing slides were presented, each for 15 seconds. Subjects were asked to read each statement to themselves, read it out loud, and then think about it and try to feel it. Heart rate and muscle tensions were recorded throughout the entire slide presentation. Subjectswere also monitored for facial tension levels from the "zygomatic" (smile) muscles and "corrugator" (frown) muscles from the right side of the face.
After all of this was completed, subjects again filled out the Adjective Checklist, and then were assigned to different groups. The "humor" group listened to an 11.5 minute tape of rountines from popular comedians (Bill Cosby and Robin Williams, for example). The "nonhumor" group listened to an 11.5 minute tape of an introductory geology test (including a discussion of volcanoes). The "control" group heard no tape at all, but sat in silence for 11.5 minutes. Muscle tension responses and heart rate were recorded during each of these treatments.
Results
According to an ANOVA test, the desired depression induction was indeed effective, as there was a significant increase in the depression scores on the Check List between the pre- and postdepression induction samplings (F(2,70) = 31.01, p<.01). This induced depression was equal for each of the three treatment groups. In the humor condition only, subjects' depression ratings dropped back to the baseline after receiving the humor treatment (t(11)="-.72," p=".49).<P"> Both the humor and nonhumor treatments caused a significant reduction in subjects' anxietyfrom postdepression to posttreatment (F(1,35) = 4.16, p<.05; F(1,35)="6.91," p<.05). Both the smile and frown muscle tensions decreased over the presentation of the depressive slides, which indicated that subjects smiled and frowned less as the depression induction continued. "Smile" muscle tension were much greater during the humor treatment than for the other two treatments (F(2,42)="7.23," p<.05). There was also a progressive decrease in heart rate of the subjects in all three treatment groups throughout the induction of depression. Heart rate decreased throughout the control condition, but increased throughout the humor and nonhumor groups, possibly indicating arousal.
Discussion
The humor condition was the only treament group that reversed the depression-induction to the extent that the subjects' depression scores returned to the baseline. Smiling muscle activity was most frequently found in the humor condition. Interestingly, depressed subjects became less depressed during the depression induction than non-depressed subjects. Possibly, the knowledge that others feel the same way as they do was comforting to the subjects.
Researchers in this study suggest that further research should be done on subjects where the depression is not induced, but where the subjects are clinically depressed patients for more accuracy in learning about the effects of humor on depression. Researchers also speculated that having subjects choose what type of humor they want to listen to may further increase the differences found between the humor and control groups. In conclusion, researchers stated that humor, when carefully used, may be useful in treating depressed patients (in releasing tension, etc.), or as an integral form of the therapy.
-----Summarized by Jenna Levitt and Kelly Cronin
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Fuller, & Sheehy-Skeffington, (1974). Effects of Group laughter on Responses to Humorous Material
The article begins by mentioning past finding and past ideas. For instance, Fuller and Sheehy-Skeffington mention how Giles and Oxford (1970) described a form of laughter called "social laughter". They incorporate this into their own article in that they believe laughter causes others to laugh as well. The authors also note that Smyth and Fuller (1972) discovered that group laughter increases the expressions of mirth and makes someone rate humorous material higher. The researchers hypothesize that dubbed laughter can improve the assessment of humorous material.
Methods
Participants--1
They studied 15 undergraduate students in the first stage.
Procedure
Participants listened to funny recordings and they were asked to rate them on a continuous scale that ranged from "not funny at all" to "very funny". Lowest ranked scores indicated the highest humor value.
Participants--2
Thirty-six undergraduates participated.
Procedure
Four 60-second humorous tapes were presented in one of two ways - either with or without 8 instances of recorded (canned) laughter of a group of approximately 20 people. Participants heard 4 tapes - either with high or low humor value (as judged in the first stage) and with or without dubbed laughter. The experimenters recorded each distinct facial expression of amusement(smiles & laughs). Participants rated the tapes on a 7 point scale from "completely without humor" to "extremely funny".
Results & Discussion
Significant effects were found for gender, humorous content, and whether or not a tape had dubbed laughter. Females gave higher ratings than males. High humor tapes were rated higher than low humor tapes, and dubbed items were rated significantly higher than non-dubbed items. Basically, social laughter was found to have an effect. This confirms the hypothesis of Fuller and Sheehy-Skeffington.
The researchers gave 2 possible reasons for the result. The first is from a Nosanchuk & Lightstone (1974) article - the idea that others laughing at the material means it must be humorous, and the participant conforms accordingly. The second is that others' laughter may condition the listener to look for a humorous interpretation of the material, causing them to "get" it more easily. Fuller and Sheehy-Skeffington conclude the article by mentioning how the knowledge of social laughter can be applied to TV and radio laugh tracks.
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Studies have shown that under anxiety-provoking conditions first-borns are more likely than later-borns to show affiliative behavior. Later-borns tend to choose more nonsocial means of reducing anxiety. First-borns, therefore, tend to exhibit more conforming behaviors. The present study test the hypothesis that first-borns will show greater humor appreciation than later-borns under social testing but not under individual testing conditions because a group setting provides a greater opportunity for affiliative support.
Method
Fifteen cartoons were viewed as slides, either individually or with a group of four. Each participant was asked to rate, on a 5-point scale, how funny each cartoon was. While te cartoon was being viewed two independent judges rated the amount of smiling and laughing shown, using a 3-point scale: (1) NO detectable smile or laugh; (2) any non-audible smile; (3) an over laugh.
Results
The results confirmed the hypothesis that first-borns would show greater appreciation in a group than in an individual condition, while later-borns found the cartoon funnier in the individual condition than the group. This was shown in the smile ratings and the rating of how funny the item was.
Discussion
Therefore, if the rating of cartoon for funniness in the presents of others can be considered an indication of arousal of anxiety the study is consistent with other evidence. The signs of greater appreciation of humor in social situations man y be an affiliative response given by first-borns under anxiety arousing conditions.
-----Summarized by Tisha Miller
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Olson, J. M., & Roese, N. J. (1995). The perceived funniness of humorous stimuli. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 908-913.
The study was based around the concept that inferential reasoning plays a role in emotional judgement. It is believed that there are two main factors that effect perceived funniness: environment and reaction to stimulus. Previous studies also found that people infer mood states due to facial expressions. This is known as the facial feedback effect. This study attempts to combine these findings as a basis of their study. They want to attain self report judgements from subjects exposed to only one humorous stimuli for a direct range of funniness.
Methods
Subjects The subjects in this experiment were 150 undergraduate students at the University of Western Ontario. One hundred were women, 50 were men. Subjects were paid $5 for their participation. Groups were randomly assigned with an equal ratio of males to females in each group. Each person was tested individually. They were brought into a room and seated at a table with headphones.
Procedure The experimenter told the subject that the headphones would shut off at times and she had to be in the room to fix them. This allowed the experimenter to observe undetected. The control group got no further instructions and began listening to the tape, as did the alleged inhibition group. The actual inhibition group were asked not to laugh or smile while listening to the tape. The groups listened to a 5 minute monologue which used jokes rated as somewhat funny from a pilot study. While the subjects listened to jokes the experimenter scored their reaction by counting the number of times the person smiled without teeth, with teeth, and laughed.
The subject was also videotaped and the tape was show to another judge to rate the actions. The experimenter and the judge agreed on 90% of the actions. After the tape the subjects were asked to rate funniness. The control group did so with out further instruction. The alleged group was told that smiles were reduced because people were in a lab setting. The actual group was reminded that they were told not to smile or laugh.
The ratings were on 2 scales. How funny the jokes were and how likely they are to retell the jokes. They were also asked to give a dollar amount of how much they would pay for a joke book containing these jokes (0-5 dollars).There was also a manipulation check which asked if the person had inhibited their smile and if the setting inhibited their smile.
Results and Discussion The results showed the actual inhibition group had greater inhibition than the alleged and the control, the alleged had higher inhibition than the control. The results for setting and inhibition proved to be not significant.
The results for overall mirth showed there was a significant effect in the actual and control group smiling or not smiling, that is the control group smiled or laughed significantly more than the actual. There was no effect for the alleged and control groups. The alleged group rated jokes funnier than the actual group or the control group and the alleged group was more likely to retell a joke than the actual or control. They would also spend more for the book than the actual or control. The sex of the subject had no effect on any rating. The results show that reaction and environment help infer emotion.
-----Summarized by Vanessa Fazio
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Provost, F.J., (1993). The relationship of sexual desire to the appreciation of humor content and mood state. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality ,8 , 529-536.
This study by Frank Prerost was a 2 X 2 X 3 factorial design interested in determining whether the degree of sexual desire in women had an effect on how funny they rated particular jokes, in addition to this, the researcher was also curious to find out if reading sexual, aggressive or neutral content jokes had a cathartic effect, that is the ability to reduce a negative mood state that was purposely induced.
Although there are fundamental discrepencies between this study and our current research project, the fact that some properties are similar (i.e. the manipulation of mood and funniness ratings of jokes) makes it worthwhile to take findings into consideration for they may shed light on the topic. Prior to conducting the experiment, Prerost predicted that "subjects with a high level of sexual would appreciate sexual and aggressive humor to a greater extent than low desire subjects. And, the high desire subjects would experience a reduction of anger following exposure to the sexual humor and enhanced positive mood" (p. 530).
Method
Subjects
This study consisted of one hundred eighty female undergraduate students enrolled in introductory psychology classes at a midwestern university. There ages ranged from 18 to 23 with a mean of 19.4 years.
Procedure
A 2 X 2 X 3 factorial design crossing level of sexual desire (high, low), arousal of anger (arousal, non arousal), and humor content types (sexual, aggressive, neutral), was used with fifteen subjects per cell. Prior to the experimental phase, subjects rated a seven question series suggested by Beck, Bozman, and Qualtrough in order to differentiate which level of sexual desire they fit into.
To anger and induce hostile mood, the subjects were required to read passages designed to be both derogatory and insulting toward females. In addition to reading the passages, insults were doled out that focused on the participants inability to follow directions. This procedure has proven to be successful in previous research. The nonarousal procedure included reading a passage that was devoid of derogatory comments toward females and their capabilities. No insulting comments were directed toward the participants. After reading the different passages, the subjects were given fifteen jokes to rate on a 7-point scale of funniness ranging from "not at all" (0), to "extremely" (6). Each participant was presented with only one type of joke; either aggressive, sexual or neutral. After reading the jokes, the participants then completed the Nowlis-Green Mood adjective checklist.
Materials
A panel of ten female undergraduates assisted in the selection of stimulus jokes. They rated a pool of jokes on two dimension: sexual content and aggressive content. After calculation, fifteen different jokes were chosen for the each of the three categories. Particular attention was paid to make sure that all of the jokes had similar funniness ratings.
Results
In general, the participants who experienced the arousal condition registered significantly more funniness for the humor than the non aroused subjects. In both conditions of arousal and non arousal, the high sexual desire women exhibited significantly greater humor appreciation than the low sexual desire women. The high sexual desire women appreciated both the sexual and aggressive humor more than the neutral humor. The low sexual desire women showed highest appreciation for the neutral humor.
The aroused subjects who showed a reduction of an aggressive mood down to the level of the non aroused subjects were the high sexual desire subjects who rated either the sexual or aggressive humor. The low sexual desire subjects remained in an aggressive mood regardless of the type of humor they were exposed to. The neutral content humor was ineffective in reducing the aggressive mood among the high sexual desire subjects.
Discussion
The level of sexual desire was found to be an indicating factor in the appreciation of humor and mood state. Enjoyment of the sexual humor by the high desire subjects produced an increase in elation and vigor and reduction in aggressiveness as measured by the mood adjective checklist.
High desire subjects responded favorably to the sexual and aggressive humor while the low desire subjects did not. Once the high desire women were exposed to the sexual and aggressive humor, they experienced a release of the hostile mood and an enhancement of the positive moods of elation and vigor. The angered, low sexual desire women continued to be in an aggressive mood after experiencing the sexual and aggressive jokes.
Sexual and aggressive humor appreciation appears to be related to the sexual desire of females, this idea revolves around the fact that enhanced mood can result from exposure to that particular type of humor. However, because neutral humor did not diminish the aggressive mood, the results do not support the hypothesis that humor is an incompatible response to an aggressive mood, producing its release. Instead, the capacity to utilize humor as a means to reduce an aggressive mood may require humor which is related to the mood state.
As a side note that may be worth considering, but that is not directly related to this particular study: It may be true that if humor is to be an effective tool in alleviating depression, the type of humor may need to be related to the etiology of the unhappiness.
-----Summarized by Vanessa Fazio and Brian Falvey
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Thorson, J. & Powell, F. C. (1993 ). Sense of Humor and Dimensions of Personality . Journal of Clinical Psychology, 49, 799-809.
In an attempt to break with the norm of humor research of examining humor by looking at appreciation and creativity only, the authors of this study attempted to look at several additional elements of personality. Using an analysis of the Multidimensional Sense of Humor Scale, as well as correlates of various traits assessed by the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule, the authors wanted to delve deeper into the question of what kinds of people are funny.
Method Subjects
Four hundred and twenty-six adults participated in the study. There were 136 men and 290 women. The ages of the subjects ranged from 18 to 90. The mean age was 37.9. Only 11 subjects were represented racial minorities.
Measures
The two instruments used were the Multidimensional Sense of Humor Scale (MSHS) and the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS). The MSHS is a 24 item test measuring the subject's view of their humor using a 5 point Likert scale. The EPPS was used to address 15 personality traits: achievement, deference, order, exhibition, autonomy, affiliation, intraception, succorance, dominance, abasement, nurturance, change, endurance, heterosexuality, and aggression.
Results
The mean MSHS score for males and females was not statistically significant. Therefore right off the bat, there were no overall differences found between the sexes. A Pearson correlation was used to determine the relationships between sense of humor and personality. No relationship between sense of humor or its elements with the personality traits of autonomy, affiliation, succorance, abasement, or nurturance were found.
Women were found score significantly lower in the area of humor generation than men. This would mean that men create more humor than women. It was also found that women use coping humor more than men. This would support the idea that a group such as women who are repressed in one way or the other, turn towards humor for help coping. When age was looked at, it was determined that as age goes up, so do humor creativity, coping humor, and humor appreciation.
Subjects who were found to have a high sense of humor tended to be lower in the personality trait of Deference. This suggests that people who make jokes, can see the humor in life. These high scoring subjects also tend to have a low Order score. This might suggest that they may be a bit less proper, and a little less organized in the area of their personal life
Humor was also found to be correlated to Extroversion and Exhibition. Along these same lines, it was discovered that the people creating humor were found to have a high need for Dominance. With a high level of exhibition and a low level of deference, it seems natural that they would be attempting to dominate certain situations.
-----Summarized by Steve Baer
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This study investigated whether there is a link between arousal state and humor appreciation. It has been previously studied that a joke will boost arousal (Berlyne, 1960,1972). Arousal was varied in this experiment by changing the seating arrangement of the subjects. Previous studies have shown that seating arrangements for pairs can vary arousal state. Sex differences also play a role in seat position preference. Males prefer to sit across from a liked other and females prefer to sit next to a liked other. Females were more relaxed with a stranger sitting across from them and more aroused with a stranger next to them and the opposite for males (Fisher & Byrne, 1975; Byrne, Baskett & Hodges, 1971).
Methods
Participants
Female undergraduatess in an intro to psychology course were subjects and received extra credit.
Procedure
They were put into pairs of either a face-to-face condition or a side-by-side condition. Non of them knew one another. Subjects then rated 10 jokes on a 10 point scale where 1 was not funny and 10 was extremely funny. The experimenter recorded the subjects mirth responses from another room through a one-way mirror. Mirth was measured on a 3 point scale where 1 was no reaction, 2 was a smile and 3 was laughter.
Results & Discussion
The mean joke rating for the face-to-face condition was 2.86 and the mean for the side-by-side condition was 4.01. These differences were significant. The differences in mirth ratings were not significantly different. The humor ratings support the theory that arousal state does affect humor aprreciation. However the mirth ratings did not support the theory. One possible explanation for the similarity of the group mirth scores is that mirth responses were enhanced in the side-by-side condition due to arousal and mirth ratings in the face-to-face condition were enhanced by the social stimuli of looking at another person (Chupnick & Leventhal, 1974). The second possible explanation is that there was not an accurate measure of mirth responses because the experimenter could not hear the subjects only see them.
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Viewing Bilingual Multiculturual Educational Television: An Empirical Analysis of Children's Behavior During Televison Viewing
The study reports an empirical investigation of behaviors demonstrated by early elementary school children while watching two programs of a children's bilingual multicultural television series. The children's visual attention, facial expressions of mirth, verbal and non-verbal imitations, and program and non-program related verbalizations are measured by trained observers. The relationships of these bahaviors to each other, to perceptual cognitive ability, to language used in the home, and to family socioeconomic and educational status are measured. The effects and interactions fo ethnic group, grade, and sex on behaviors during viewing are observed. The study provided an opportunity for developing a methodology to observe and record children's behaviors during television viewing and examining those behaviors with large samples of children of various ethnic and language groups.
Methods
Participants. A total of 385 subjects of Mexican American, Puerto Rican, Cuban American, and Anglo American backgrounds participated.
Procedure. Each subject views the two Carrascolendas pilot programs in groups of six in a room. Observers only told the children, "We are going to watch a television program. Let's all sit down on these chairs." The children form a shallow semicircle of six chairs about 6 feet from the television. Each of two observers sit at each end of the semicircle, rating each of the three children who sit at the opposite end of the semicircle. The ratings were of the six behaviors and are marked at the last ten seconds of each segment.
There are four categories for scoring. Visual attention consists of a 4 point scale: 3=the child maintained eye contact on the tv 100%; 2=eye contact more than50% but less than 100%; 1=eye contact less than 50% but more than 0%; and 0=no eye contact during the segment.
Facial expression of mirth measurement consists of a 3 point scale; 2=exhibits laughter which is related to either the program or to a program related verbalization or a nonverbal imitation made by the other children; 1=exhibits a smile under same conditions as laughter; and 0=neither smile nor laughter.
Verbalization uses two separated variables: (a) program related verbalization but excludes verbal imitation; (b)non program related verbalization.
Imiation uses two separate variables: (a) verbal imitation of an actual verbalization in the program; (b) nonverbal imitation of a motor nonverbal behavior of an actual imitation by a character in the program.
At various times, two observers rate the same 3 children to make sure the observers rate the 6 behaviors similar. The observers practice rating children until achieving at least 90% exact agreement with another rater before the study.
Results
The results show that with the exception of facial expression of mirth, the means and standard deviations for each variable are strikingly similar across programs. The most frequent behavior children exhibit most often was visual attention, followed by smiles/laughter. Interesting to note that program related verbalization was negatively related to visual attention but positively related to facial expression of mirth. There is no noticeable correlation between the television viewing behaviors and perceptual cognitive ability or the family's socioeconomic or educational
status.
This study presents a methodology for reliable observing and recording behaviors of individual viewers of selected televised material. The greater the number of related verbalizations during the viewing session, the less eye contact with teh television was made. The more a child imitates the televised material the less the visual attention is given. The more smiles/laughter, the more children talk about and imitate the material during viewing.
There were significant ethnic group and sex differences in behaviors. Girls spent more time engaging in eye contact with the television, while boys spent more time talking about the material. One possible explanation for the observation of ethnic differences is a differential understanding of portions of the bilingual programs due to the language spoken by the child.
-----Summarized by Marissa Battaglia